[Review] Microplastic and nanoplastic pollution and associated potential disease risks

Microplastics and nanoplastics (MNPs) are emerging pollutants widely dispersed in the environment, with humans primarily exposed through ingestion and inhalation. Although their biological effects are being increasingly studied, their potential effect on human health and disease risk remains uncertain. This Review summarises evidence on potential disease risks of human exposure to MNPs, while highlighting key limitations and research gaps. Evidence suggests that MNP exposure might elevate the risk of various diseases, including metabolic, respiratory, cardiovascular, neuroendocrine, hepatic, renal, and skin disorders, as well as infectious diseases, cancer, and ageing-related disorders.